Phonology in the Twentieth Century

The original (1985) edition of this work attempted to cover the main lines of development of phonological theory from the end of the 19th century through the early 1980s. Much work of importance, both theoretical and historiographic, has appeared in subsequent years, and the present edition tries to bring the story up to the end of the 20th century, as the title promised. This ...

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The original (1985) edition of this work attempted to cover the main lines of development of phonological theory from the end of the 19th century through the early 1980s. Much work of importance, both theoretical and historiographic, has appeared in subsequent years, and the present edition tries to bring the story up to the end of the 20th century, as the title promised. This has involved an overall editing of the text, in the process correcting some errors of fact and interpretation, as well as the addition of new material and many new references.

Stephen Anderson is the Dorothy R. Diebold Professor of Linguistics, Emeritus at Yale University. After completing his PhD at MIT in 1969, he taught in the Linguistics Departments at Harvard and UCLA before moving to The Johns Hopkins University in 1988 as a co-founder of one of the first Departments of Cognitive Science. In 1994, he moved to Yale as Chair of the Linguistics De...

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Stephen Anderson is the Dorothy R. Diebold Professor of Linguistics, Emeritus at Yale University. After completing his PhD at MIT in 1969, he taught in the Linguistics Departments at Harvard and UCLA before moving to The Johns Hopkins University in 1988 as a co-founder of one of the first Departments of Cognitive Science. In 1994, he moved to Yale as Chair of the Linguistics Department, where he spent the remainder of his career until retirement in 2017. His research has involved most of the major areas of general linguistics, focused initially on phonology and later on morphological theory, as well as on the history of the field and the analysis of a variety of languages. He has worked on the biology of the Language Faculty, including its evolution and the relation between human language and animal communication. Among his books are the first edition of Phonology in the twentieth century Chicago (1985), A-Morphous Morphology (Oxford, 1992), Doctor Dolittle's delusion (Yale, 2004) and René de Saussure and the Theory of Word Formation (with Louis de Saussure, LSP 2018). He was President of the Linguistic Society of America in 2007, and is a Fellow of that Society as well as the American Academy of Arts & Sciences and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

1 Introduction 1
2 Ferdinand de Saussure 21
2.1 Saussure’s life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 The Saussurean view of language, languages, and linguistics . . 30
2.3 The linguistic sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 The relation of languages to their history . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
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1 Introduction 1
2 Ferdinand de Saussure 21
2.1 Saussure’s life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 The Saussurean view of language, languages, and linguistics . . 30
2.3 The linguistic sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 The relation of languages to their history . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Saussure’s View of sound structure 41
3.1 Sounds, sound images, and their study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 ‘Phonèmes’ and ‘phonetic species’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 The linguistic representation of signifiants . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4 Some approaches to the study of phonological differences . . . . 53
3.5 Saussure’s description of alternations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6 Saussure and the phonological tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 The Kazan School: De Courtenay 69
4.1 Biographical remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2 The study of sound systems in the Kazan school . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3 The nature of phonological structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4 Kruszewski’s theory of alternations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5 Baudouin’s development of the theory of alternations . . . . . . 88
4.6 The later history of ‘Kazan phonology’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5 From the Moscow Circle to the Prague School and Trubetzkoy’s
Grundzüge 99
5.1 The background of the Prague Circle and the life of Trubetzkoy 100
5.2 Units in phonological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.3 The structure of phonological systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Contents
5.4 Suprasegmental properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.5 Neutralization, archiphonemes, and markedness . . . . . . . . . 126
5.6 Morpho(pho)nology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6 Roman Jakobson and the theory of distinctive features 137
6.1 Origins of the distinctive feature theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.2 Developing the theory of distinctive features . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.3 The adequacy of Jakobson’s distinctive features . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4 Kindersprache, Aphasie und allgemeine Lautgesetze . . . . . . . 152
6.5 Information theory and Jakobson’s legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7 Structural linguistics in Copenhagen: Louis Hjelmslev and his circle 165
7.1 Hjelmslev’s life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.2 Hjelmslev’s notion of an ‘immanent’ Linguistics . . . . . . . . . 174
7.3 Basic terms of glossematic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.4 Hjelmslev’s approach to the description of sound structure . . . 182
7.5 The role of simplicity in a glossematic description . . . . . . . . 189
7.6 Nonsegmental structure in glossematic phonology . . . . . . . . 194
7.7 Eli Fischer-Jørgensen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8 André Martinet and Functional Phonology 205
8.1 Martinet’s life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.2 Phonology as functional phonetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.3 Functional factors in phonological change . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9 British linguistics and Firthian prosodic analysis 225
9.1 Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, and the British phonetic tradition . 228
9.2 J. R. Firth’s life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.3 The Firthian view of language and linguistics . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.4 Systems and structures, sounds and prosodies . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.5 Relations between prosodic and other approaches to phonology 250
10 Franz Boas and the beginnings of American linguistics 257
10.1 William Dwight Whitney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.2 Early work on American Indian languages . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.3 Franz Boas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
10.4 Linguistic theory and Boas’s Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.5 Boas’s views of phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.6 Representations and rules in Boas’s descriptions . . . . . . . . . 276
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Contents
10.7 Abstractness in Boas’s phonological practice . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11 Edward Sapir 287
11.1 Sapir’s life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.2 Sapir’s view of the nature of language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
11.3 Sapir’s conception of phonological structure . . . . . . . . . . . 302
11.4 Sapir’s descriptive practice in phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
11.5 Rules and their interactions in Sapir’s phonology . . . . . . . . 312
11.6 The relation between rules and representations . . . . . . . . . 315
APPENDIX: Abstractness and Sapir’s analysis of Southern Paiute . . . 321
12 Leonard Bloomfield 329
12.1 Bloomfield’s life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
12.2 Bloomfield’s view of language, linguistics, and psychology . . . 335
12.3 Bloomfield’s conception of the phoneme . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
12.4 Representations in Bloomfield’s phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
12.5 The ‘abstractness’ of phonemic representations . . . . . . . . . 350
12.6 Morphophonemics and the description of alternations . . . . . . 354
13 American structuralist phonology 361
13.1 Some prominent American structuralists . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
13.2 The American structuralist view of language . . . . . . . . . . . 365
13.3 Initial formulations of the notion of ‘phoneme’ . . . . . . . . . . 371
13.4 Twaddell’s “On Defining the Phoneme” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
13.5 Subsequent developments in structuralist phonemics . . . . . . 383
13.6 American structuralist morphophonemics . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
13.7 Rule interactions and the nature of descriptions . . . . . . . . . 396
14 Generative Phonology and its origins 403
14.1 The decline and fall of American structuralism . . . . . . . . . . 404
14.2 The emergence of generative phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
14.3 Morris Halle and the bases of generative phonology . . . . . . . 412
14.4 The antecedents of generative phonological theory . . . . . . . 426
15 The Sound Pattern of English and its Aftermath 433
15.1 The nature of the SPE program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
15.2 The problem of phonetic content within the SPE theory . . . . . 436
15.3 How abstract are phonological representations? . . . . . . . . . 442
15.4 Constraining representations: ‘Natural Generative Phonology’ . 446
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Contents
15.5 Constraining rules: Natural phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
16 Toward a new millennium 457
16.1 A focus on representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
16.1.1 Metrical Phonology and structure above the segment . . 459
16.1.2 Autosegmental Phonology and structure within the
segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
16.2 The rise of Optimality Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
16.3 An alternative view: The Laboratory Phonology movement . . . 468
16.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
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