Sugar

1. Urbanization & Sugar 
  
 While urbanization is now also prominent in low-income countries, the bigger picture obscures important differences across regions. Traditionally, Latin America has been the most urbanized developing region. South America, in particular, urbanized early and rapidly. By 1980, more than two-thirds of the region’s population was classified as urban, a share that rose to nearly 85percent in 2015. But its high degree of urbanization means that urbanization rates will decline, and future growth will remain small, while low-urbanized areas may urbanize faster in the future. 
Urbanization impacts food consumption patterns. Higher urban income tends to increase demand for processed foods, as well as animal-source food, fruits and vegetables, as part of a broad dietary transition. Higher urban wages also tend to increase the opportunity costs of preparing food and favour food products that have a large amount of labour embedded in them, such as fast food, store-bought convenience foods and foods prepared and marketed by street vendors. With these changes, the nutrient content of diets is changing. Typically, diets are becoming higher in salt, fat and sugar and are, in general, more energy-dense. This shift in consumption patterns also means a shift in employment within the food system: fewer people work in agriculture and more work in transport, wholesaling, retailing, food processing and vending (Cohen and Garrett, 2009).  
 
城市化影响食品消费模式。作为广泛饮食转型的一部分，较高的城市收入往往会增加对加工食品以及动物源食品、水果和蔬菜的需求。较高的城市工资也往往会增加准备食物的机会成本，并青睐有大量劳力嵌入其中的食品，例如快餐、商店购买的方便食品以及街头小贩准备和销售的食品。随着这些变化，饮食的营养成分也在发生变化。通常，饮食中盐、脂肪和糖的含量越来越高，并且通常能量密度更高。消费模式的这种转变也意味着食品系统内就业的转变：从事农业的人数减少，而从事运输、批发、零售、食品加工和自动售货的工作更多（Cohen and Garrett，2009 ）。
 
2. Biofuels & Sugarcane 
 In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the production of biofuels, from around 60billion litres in 2007 to around 130billion litres in 2015. Output is projected to grow to 140billion litres in 2020 (IEA, 2016), with a corresponding impact on the production and consumption of food and feed crops. For example, between 2000 and 2011, world cereal consumption increased at a rate of 1.8percent a year. Almost one-third of that annual increase went towards biofuel production in the United States of America alone.  
There has also been an increased use of vegetable oil for biofuel production. Between 2000 and 2009, the consumption of vegetable oil for all purposes grew at an annual rate of 5.1 percent, while the consumption
of vegetable oil for biofuel production grew at an annual rate of 23 percent (HLPE, 2011). Projections indicate that by 2024, one-quarter of sugarcane production will be used for the manufacturing of ethanol, a 21  percent increase from 2014 (OECD and FAO, 2015). The increase in production of these bioenergy crops has led to a conversion of considerable areas of forest
into farmland.
 
植物油在生物燃料生产中的使用也有所增加。 2000 年至 2009 年间，用于各种用途的植物油消费量以每年 5.1% 的速度增长，而用于生物燃料生产的植物油消费量以每年 23% 的速度增长（ The High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition 高专组，2011）。预测表明，到 2024 年，四分之一的甘蔗产量将用于制造乙醇，比 2014 年增加 21%（ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 经合组织和 Food and Agriculture Organization 粮农组织，2015）。这些生物能源作物产量的增加导致相当大的森林面积转变为农田。
3. Productivity & Sugar 
  Increased use of land, irrigation and agro-chemicals played a major role in the growth of agricultural production during the Green Revolution. However, it is now recognized that the gains were often accompanied by negative effects on agriculture’s natural resource base, including land degradation, salinization of irrigated areas, over-extraction of groundwater, the build-up of pest resistance and the erosion of biodiversity. Agriculture has also damaged the wider environment through deforestation, the emission of greenhouse gases and nitrate pollution of water bodies (FAO, 2011a). 
在绿色革命期间，土地、灌溉和农用化学品使用的增加对农业生产的增长发挥了重要作用。然而，现在人们认识到，这些收益往往伴随着对农业自然资源基础的负面影响，包括土地退化、灌溉地区盐碱化、地下水过度开采、害虫抗药性增强和生物多样性削弱。农业生产还通过森林砍伐、温室气体排放和水体硝酸盐污染破坏了更广泛的环境（粮农组织，2011a）。
 
Since the 1990s, average annual increases in the yields of maize, rice, and wheat at the global level have been slightly more than 1 percent, much lower than in the 1960s (Figure 5.1), while those of soybeans and sugarcane have been below 1  percent. Because the substantial additional amounts of food needed in coming decades will be produced mainly through yield increases, rather than major expansion of the cultivated area, cereal yield growth rates below 1  percent a year would be a worrying signal.2 There are also very large differences in crop yields between high-income and low-income countries (Table 5.2). Yields of wheat and rice in low-income countries are currently about half those in high-income countries.
 
1990 年代以来，全球玉米、水稻和小麦的年均产量增幅略高于 1%，远低于 1960 年代（图 5.1），而大豆和甘蔗的年均增幅低于 1%。由于未来几十年所需的大量额外粮食将主要通过增加产量而不是大幅扩大种植面积来生产，因此每年低于 1% 的谷物产量增长率将是一个令人担忧的信号。 也存在非常大的差异高收入国家和低收入国家之间的作物产量（表 5.2）。低收入国家的小麦和大米产量目前约为高收入国家的一半。
 Yields of major crops (cereals, roots and tubers, pulses, sugar crops, oil crops and vegetables) also vary substantially across regions. Estimated yield gaps, expressed as a percentage of potential yields, exceed 50 percent in most low-income countries. They are largest in sub-Saharan Africa (76 percent) and lowest in East Asia (11 percent). The gap between farm yields and potential yields reflects constraints, such as insufficient adoption of more productive technologies, a lack of market integration and gender inequalities in small-scale family farming (FAO, 2011b). 
 
主要作物（谷物、块根和块茎、豆类、糖料作物、油料作物和蔬菜）的产量也因地区而异。在大多数低收入国家，估计的产量差距（以潜在产量的百分比表示）超过 50%。它们在撒哈拉以南非洲最大（76%），在东亚最低（11%）。农场产量与潜在产量之间的差距反映了制约因素，例如对生产性技术的采用不足、缺乏市场整合以及小规模家庭农业中的性别不平等（粮农组织，2011b）。
  The productivity of aquaculture has been increasing, owing to the intensification of production methods. In Asia, small-scale traditional pond aquaculture, in which a range of carp species with complementary feeding behaviours were stocked in fertilized ponds, has given way to farmed fish and crustacean production that is heavily, if not exclusively, reliant on feeds. Key drivers have been rising land prices and the high prices paid for farmed fish, which makes feeds affordable (Beveridge et al., 2013). 
由于生产方法的集约化，水产养殖的生产力一直在提高。在亚洲，小规模的传统池塘水产养殖（在施肥过的池塘中放养一系列具有互补摄食行为的鲤鱼种类）已经让位于严重（如果不是完全）依赖饲料的养殖鱼类和甲壳类生产。主要驱动因素是土地价格上涨和养殖鱼类的高价，这使得饲料价格变得可以接受（Beveridge 等，2013）。
 
4. Health & Sugar
 
Overweight and obesity are increasing worldwide, in all population groups, owing to increased consumption of foods that are high in energy, fats, added sugars or salt, and an inadequate intake of fruits, vegetables and dietary fibre. This ‘nutrition transition’ reflects rapid urbanization, the increased production of processed food, and more sedentary lifestyles. In 2014, some 40  percent of people aged 18 and over were overweight and, of these, 13 percent were obese (WHO, 2016e). Globally, 44 percent of adult diabetes cases, 23 percent of ischaemic heart disease and 7 to 41 percent of certain cancers are attributable to overweight and obesity (WHO, 2009). Almost two-thirds of the world’s population live in countries where overweight and obesity kill more people than underweight (WHO, 2016e). 
 
由于高能量、高脂肪、高糖或高盐食物的消费量增加，以及水果、蔬菜和膳食纤维摄入量不足，全世界所有人群的超重和肥胖症都在增加。这种“营养转变”反映了快速的城市化、加工食品产量的增加以及久坐不动的生活方式。 2014 年，约 40% 的 18 岁及以上人群超重，其中 13% 肥胖（世卫组织，2016e）。在全球范围内，44% 的成人糖尿病、23% 的缺血性心脏病和 7% 至 41% 的某些癌症可归因于超重和肥胖（WHO，2009）。世界上近三分之二的人口生活在超重和肥胖致死人数多于体重不足人数的国家（世卫组织，2016e）。PS: A body mass index (BMI) over 25 is considered overweight, and over 30 is obese. 
 Between 2000 and 2015, the prevalence of overweight among children under 5years rose from 5.1 to 6.2percent (UNICEF, WHO and World Bank, 2016). If this trend continues, by 2025 the percentage of overweight, including obese, children under five will reach 11percent, or 70million (WHO, 2014). Childhood obesity increases the risk of early onset of obesity-related health complications, which were once thought to be only problems for adults. The early occurrence of these diseases can have serious consequences on children’s future risk of non-communicable diseases (Park et al., 2012). The economic price of malnutrition is billions of dollars in lost productivity and health care costs (FAO, 2013b). By improving nutrition, particularly during a child’s first 1000 days, many public health problems can be prevented and many obstacles to sustainable development overcome (1,000 Days, 2016). 
2000 - 2015年，5岁以下儿童超重率从5.1 %上升到6.2 % ( UNICEF、WHO和世界银行，2016 )。如果这一趋势继续下去，到2025年，包括肥胖在内的5岁以下儿童超重的比例将达到11 %，即7000万(世卫组织，2014年)。儿童肥胖增加了与肥胖有关的健康并发症早发的风险，这曾经被认为只是成年人的问题。这些疾病的早期发生会对儿童未来患非传染性疾病的风险产生严重后果( Park et al .，2012 )。营养不良的经济代价是数十亿美元的生产力损失和医疗保健费用( FAO，2013b )。通过改善营养，特别是在儿童最初的1 000天内，可以预防许多公共卫生问题，克服可持续发展的许多障碍( 1，000 Days，2016年)。
 With the increases in food supply in recent decades, the world now produces more than enough food to satisfy the dietary needs of the entire global population. The average DES per person per day in low- and middle-income countries is around 2750kilocalories and in high-income countries it is around 3 350 kilocalories. Both these figures exceed the minimum requirement of around 1950kilocalories per person per day (FAO, IFAD and WFP, 2015a, Table 1). The same applies to protein requirements. 
随着近几十年来粮食供应的增加，世界现在生产的粮食足以满足整个全球人口的饮食需求。低收入和中等收入国家每人每天的平均 DES（ Dietary Energy Supply  ，the food available for human consumption ，膳食能量供应） 约为 2 750 大卡，高收入国家约为 3 350 大卡。这两个数字都超过了每人每天约 1 950 大卡的最低需求（粮农组织、农发基金和粮食计划署，2015a，表 1）。这同样适用于蛋白质需求。
 
However, adequate food availability does not automatically imply adequate food intake by all. First, inequality in incomes and other means of subsistence explain large differences in access to food and why still hundreds of millions of people are undernourished. Second, poorer households tend to face impediments to the adequate utilization of food owing to lack of access to facilities, such as food storage, cooking equipment and clean water, and to services, such as health care and basic nutrition education. Third, the dietary transition is partially reflected in improved access to more nutritious foods, including meat, dairy products, fruits and vegetables, but not necessary in the right balance. Analyses based on household surveys, as well as the trends shown above based on the FAO food balance sheets, suggest accelerated growth in consumption of meat and slower growth in consumption of fruits and vegetables. This trend, together with rapidly growing consumption of processed foods, often with excessive quantities of salt, sugar, and preservatives, has given rise to concerns over the shift towards less healthy diets and the increasing prevalence of micronutrient deficiency and overweight. 
 
然而，充足的食物供应并不自动意味着所有人都能摄入足够的食物。首先，收入和其他谋生手段的不平等解释了获得食物的巨大差异以及为什么仍有数亿人营养不良。其次，由于缺乏食物储存、烹饪设备和清洁水等设施，以及保健和基本营养教育等服务，较贫困家庭往往在充分利用食物方面面临障碍。第三，饮食转变部分反映在更容易获得更有营养的食物上，包括肉类、乳制品、水果和蔬菜，但没有必要保持适当的平衡。基于住户调查的分析以及上述基于粮农组织食物平衡表的趋势表明，肉类消费增长加快，水果和蔬菜消费增长放缓。这种趋势，再加上加工食品消费量的快速增长，往往含有过量的盐、糖和防腐剂，引起人们对转向不太健康的饮食以及微量营养素缺乏和超重日益流行的担忧。
 
5. Processed Food & Sugar & Value Chain
 In most regions, the consumption of highly processed foods increased more than the consumption of fresh foods. Middle-income countries show the greatest shift toward dietary patterns based on highly processed foods (Imamura et al., 2015). There was an increase in the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages in four out of seven regions, with the largest increase in North America. In all regions, consumption of processed meat has increased. In East Asia, red meat consumption has increased substantially, but it has declined in every other region. Levels of red meat consumption are similar in East Asia, Latin America, North America and Western Europe. 
在大多数地区，高度加工食品的消费增长超过了新鲜食品的消费。中等收入国家向基于高度加工食品的饮食模式转变最大（Imamura 等，2015）。七个地区中有四个地区的含糖饮料消费量有所增加，其中北美地区的增幅最大。在所有地区，加工肉类的消费量都有所增加。在东亚，红肉消费量大幅增加，但在其他所有地区均有所下降。东亚、拉丁美洲、北美和西欧的红肉消费水平相似。(P82）
 Vertically coordinated value chains have far-reaching implications for dietary patterns, nutrition and health :（P108）
 In addition to improving the efficiency of food delivery systems, these value chains have helped improve food quality and safety, which benefits consumer health. At the same time, they have facilitated the diversification of diets among more affluent consumers, accelerating the shift from starchy staples, which are the main foods of the poor, to livestock products, fats and oils, and fruit and vegetables. More affluent consumers tend to adopt globally connected lifestyles that increase the demand for novel foods. 
 
However, industrialized meat production processes and higher consumption of processed foods also raise concerns related to nutrition, the environment, food security and food safety. Large-scale food processing risks increasing the availability of cheaper foods that have a high content of    fat, added sugar and salt (so-called ‘empty calories’). Recent studies of the links between people’s diets and their food environments, i.e. the food that is made available, affordable, convenient and desirable based on consumers’ tastes and education, have produced mixed findings. Sometimes, the wider availability of processed food leads to higher food consumption and greater dietary diversity. In other cases, low-income populations find it more difficult to adopt high-quality diets and are more likely to consume ‘empty calories’. The continuing increase in overweight, obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases worldwide is a clear indicator of this latter trend (Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition, 2016).  
 
然而，工业化的肉类生产过程和加工食品的更高消费也引起了与营养、环境、食品安全和食品安全相关的担忧。大规模食品加工可能会增加脂肪含量高、添加糖和盐（所谓的“空卡路里/空有热量”）的廉价食品的供应。最近关于人们饮食与其食物环境之间联系的研究，即根据消费者的口味和教育提供的、负担得起的、方便的和合意的食物，得出了不同的结果。有时，加工食品的更广泛供应会导致更高的食品消费和更大的饮食多样性。在其他情况下，低收入人群发现更难采用高质量的饮食，更有可能消耗“空有热量”。世界范围内超重、肥胖和饮食相关非传染性疾病的持续增加是后一种趋势的明确指标（全球农业和粮食系统营养小组，2016 年）。
  Meanwhile, the food economy is becoming more responsive to growing consumer demand for specific food items, which reflects income growth, age structure, levels of urbanization and changing tastes. Increasingly, food suppliers study the evolution of food demand in order to plan food chain investments more effectively, from input supply to consumption (Timmer, 2014). Efforts to improve the efficiency of agricultural value chains, and achieve sustainable food security and nutrition, are constrained by the inequalities facing rural women. Across all developing regions, women play important roles in food production and value addition, and shoulder primary responsibility for the unpaid care of family members. Mothers usually choose what the youngest children eat, and women often have the most influence in determining what the whole family eats. 
与此同时，食品经济对消费者日益增长的特定食品需求越来越敏感，这反映了收入增长、年龄结构、城市化水平和口味的变化。食品供应商越来越多地研究食品需求的演变，以便更有效地规划从投入供给到消费的食物链投资( Timmer，2014 )。提高农业价值链效率、实现粮食安全和营养可持续的努力受到农村妇女面临的不平等的制约。在所有发展中地区，妇女在粮食生产和价值增值中扮演着重要角色，对家庭成员的无偿照料负有首要责任。母亲通常选择最年轻的孩子吃什么，而女性在决定整个家庭吃什么时往往影响最大。
 Women’s knowledge, education, social status, health and nutrition, and their control over resources are key factors that affect nutritional outcomes. Many studies show that women’s social and economic empowerment – the result of improved education or access to regular income – is one of the most relevant factors contributing to improved children’s health and nutrition (Scaling Up Nutrition, 2016; Cunningham et al., 2015). Unfortunately, the persistence of gender-based discrimination means that women do not benefit equally from agrifood value chain development. In many low-income countries, they remain trapped in the low-skilled and low-paid nodes of the food supply chain, often in casual and insecure employment (Kilic, PalaciosLopez and Goldstein, 2014).  
女性的知识、教育、社会地位、健康和营养，以及她们对资源的控制是影响营养结局的关键因素。许多研究表明，女性社会经济赋权- -改善教育或获得正常收入的结果- -是促进儿童健康和营养改善的最相关因素之一( Scaling Up Nutrition，2016 )；Cunningham et al .，2015 )。遗憾的是，性别歧视的持续存在意味着妇女不能平等地从农产品价值链发展中受益。在许多低收入国家，他们仍然困在食品供应链的低技能和低收入节点，经常处于随意和不安全的就业( Kilic，PalaciosLopez和Goldstein，2014 )。