启蒙运动(the Enlightenment)
Wikipedia Quote:
“The Age of Enlightenment (or simply the Enlightenment or Age of Reason) was a cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th-century Europe, that sought to mobilize the power of reason, in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted science and intellectual interchange and opposed superstition[1], intolerance and abuses in church and state. Originating about 1650–1700, it was sparked by philosophers Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), John Locke (1632–1704), Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), mathematician Isaac Newton (1643–1727) and historian Voltaire (1694–1778). The wide distribution of the printing press, invented in Europe in 1440, made possible the rapid distribution of knowledge and ideas which precipitated the Enlightenment. Ruling princes often endorsed and fostered figures and even attempted to apply their ideas of government in what was known as Enlightened Despotism. The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790–1800, after which the emphasis on reason gave way to Romanticism's emphasis on emotion and a Counter-Enlightenment gained force.”
经济领域
“自由放任”——让人民做他们愿意做的事,让自然界自然地发展。这种对政府干涉的反对,是对严格管制经济生活(重商主义)的一种反应。在国家建设的早期阶段,重商主义被认为是国家安全所必需的。但是到18世纪,他似乎是多余的,甚至是有害的。自由放任主义由苏格兰人亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)在其名著《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》(1776)一书中作了出色的系统阐述。他论证说,就个人的经济活动而论,自我利益是个人活动的动机;国家的福祉只不过是在一个国家中起作用的个人利益的总和;每个人都比任何政治家更清楚地知道其自身的利益。
宗教领域
“砸烂可耻的东西”,即消灭宗教的狂热和不容异说。哲人们拒绝接受上帝支配世界并任意地决定人类的命运这种传统的信仰。无神论者(antitheist)/不可知论者(agnostic)/自然神论者(Deisist)——自基督教在欧洲获胜以来,基督教传统首次出现了明确的破裂。
政治领域
“社会契约论”(Social Contract)。统治的契约论由英国政治理论家John locke在1690年发表的《政府论》首次详细提出,他将统治看做统治者与被统治者之间的一种政治契约。法国哲学家Jean Jacques Rousseau把它改变成一种社会契约而非政治契约,是人民之间的一个协议,统治权只是一种代办权,从而证明把人民的合法权利归还给拥有最高权力的人民这种革命是正当的。
虽然哲人们没有发现支配整个人类的、永远不变的法则,但他们的著作影响了全世界爱好思考的人们,并说服欧洲许多的君主改变了其统治目的的思想。出现“仁慈的专制君主”:
Catherine the Great(Catherine II,Екатерина Великая,Empress of Russia)
Frederick the Great(Frederick II,King of Prussia )
Joseph II(Holy Roman Emperor,ruler of the Habsburg lands)
Joseph II, Catherine II of Russia and Frederick II of Prussia were ranked as the three great Enlightenment monarchs.