Premodern Chinese Theories of Lit
Study of Literature:
A. Literary History
B. Literary Criticism
1. Theoretical Criticism [a. theories of literature (nature& functions of literature) b. literary theories (form, genre, style, and technique)]
2. Practical Criticism [a. Interpretation b. Evaluation]
The Universe—the Work—the Writer—the Reader
This book is about Theories of Literature (aka, the nature and functions of literature)
Metaphysical:
Literature as a manifestation of the principle of the universe. The principle of the universe is referred as Dao, the unitary principle of all things and the totality of all beings. Daoist emphasizes the importance for the individual, in his relation to Nature; the Confucian emphasizes the importance for the individual, in his relations with others and following the moral Way which the sage established in accordance with the Way of Nature. The concept of Dao originates from The Book of Changes 易經, which draws an analogy between the configuration of heaven and the configuration of man, and the analogy between the natural phenomena and literature as parallel manifestations of the Dao. Also in 禮記 The Book of Rites, music is considered the harmony of heaven and earth. This is why music and poetry were closely associated (確實, 樂府, 曲子詞, 北曲etc…) Poetry is the heart/mind of heaven and earth—metaphysical concept of poetry. 陸機, 劉勰 (literature originates from the Dao and elevate literature to a status of cosmic significance). 文: wen 1) as patterns or configurations of natural phenomena, the manifestations of the cosmic Dao;2) as culture, as opposed to natural pattern; 3) as embellishment; 4) as the script/language. Aside from 劉勰, his contemporaries 昭明太子蕭統, 蕭綱, also elevate literature by associating it with Dao in order to serves his opinion of 文 as a belletristic one. (In Tang, the focus on metaphysical aspect is shifted to pragmatic aspect of 文, in parallel to this shift, the metaphysical concept of Dao is replaced by the Moral.) 老子one should remove rational knowledge from one’s mind so as to contemplate intuitively the Dao of Nature.莊子 Self-oblivious contemplation of Nature leads to intuitive union with the Dao (得魚忘筌/得意忘言). But for Zhuangzi, this intuitive cognition is not innate but can only be achieved by tense concentration and self-discipline, while Mencius (and the Ideal Philosopher Wang Yangming) holds that all men have an intuitive knowledge of right and wrong. 司空圖 was the first poet to voice explicitly the concept of poetry as an embodiment of the poet;s apprehension of the Dao, as we can see from his 二十四詩品. Among his admirers, 蘇軾. Su’s disciple, 黃庭堅 and his 江西詩派, however, holds the idea of meditating on ancient poetry in the same way as in spiritual exercises, because Huang was influenced by Chan. The combination of archaism 復古 and Chan is best illustrated by 嚴羽’s 滄浪詩話, Yan uses Chan primarily as an analogy to poetry: poetry should not be book learning, not rational discourse, not mechanical imitation of ancient poets. 謝榛 in his 四溟詩話 argues that the writing of poetry is based on qing& jing (情&景), thus directing the function of poetry to the expressive. 王夫之 also emphasizes the fusion of inner experience and external reality (poetry results from perfect consonance between the poet’s intuition and the underlying principles of things). 王士禎 (字”漁陽”), who believes that the ultimate aim of poetry is the attainment of spiritual awakening (not empirical knowledge based on sense-perception, but intuitive knowledge gained through encounter with Nature). 桐城派姚鼐 develops the readers’ perception of aesthetic qualities in poetry from the metaphysical concept. 王國維’s theory of 境界 has much in common with the theories of 王夫之 and 王士禎.
Comparative:
Metaphysical theory resembles the mimetic theory in the West since both are oriented towards the universe. But in the latter one the universe often refers to the transcendental (Platonic Ideas or God. Plato conceives poets and artists as imitating natural objects, which are themselves imperfect imitations of perfect and eternal Ideas, therefore he calls the action of mimesis “twice removed from Reality.”) In mimetic theories that follow the Transcendental Ideal, the Ideals are supposed to exist in some superlunary world, but in Chinese metaphysical theories the Dao is immanent in everything in Nature (The Dao is not an anthropomorphic deity). To 劉勰, language is a natural manifestation of the human mind, which is in turn a manifestation of the cosmic Dao, as spontaneously manifesting the Dao, in the “transformed state” of consciousness he has attained in which there is no longer any distinction between the subjective and the objective. In the Chinese case, there is imitation, as seen in the example of Archaism, 古文派 or 復古派. But archaism is not a theory of literature but about how to write. To Sydney, language and reason are both gifts from God, men consciously imitating Nature or being possessed by the Divine. As for the expressive mode, in western mimetic theories the poet projects his own feelings into external objects; while in metaphysical theory the poet empties his mind and keeps it still so as to be receptive of Dao. They accept the paradoxical nature of language, that is, it is inadequate to translate the ultimate reality but it is nevertheless a necessary means to communicate the incommunicable. But Mallarme sees it as a source of agony. Mike Dufrenne’s phenome logical theory differs from Chinese metaphysical one mainly because the western culture is characterized by anthropocentrism (以人爲中心), the phenomenologist resolved the subject-object dichotomy by positing a Being that transcends both, so did the Daoists resolve the same dichotomy by posting the Dao, which transcends Nature and Man. Both aim for the pre-reflective and pre-conceptual state of consciousness in which there is no distinction between the subject and the object—Language is the means by which the poet seeks to convey the preconceptual and therefore prelingual state of consciousness in which the subject and the object, the “I” and the “world,” are one, yet as soon as he speaks, he is creating a separation. (Very Lacanian!!!)
Deterministic:
Theories of literature that expound the concept of literature as an unconscious and inevitable reflection or revelation of contemporary political and social realities. “亡國之音”poetic omens (a peculiar Chinese belief that omens can take the form of anonymous folk songs). 鄭玄, 正音/變音; Wang Wan (1624-90)’s commentary on the rise and decline of the Tang dynasty is an apt example.
Expressive:
Literature, especially poetry, is a spontaneous expression of universal human emotions and that this actually accounted for the genesis of poetry in antiquity, as seen in the character for poetry 詩, etymologically, it denotes the expression of the heart/mind. Also, in the Book of Odes, 詩言志 poetry expresses the intent. 曹丕’s Discourse on Literature emphasizes individualism (literature as expression of personal 氣, or what 陸機 calls 才, are past of each individual’s nature and therefore differs from person to person/cannot be cultivated), 立德立功立言 to achieve immortality. Beginning in the Tang, expressive theory is subjugated to pragmatic one (e.g. morality). In the late Ming period, expressive theory is revived at the hands of 李贄, whose On the Childlike Heart/Mind 童心說 belongs to the Left Wing of Wang Yangming’s school of Idealistic philosophy. 王陽明左派 (李贄 also regards drama and fiction as literature). Following Li was the 公安三袁 (1560-1610) who take a stance against the Archaism 古文派 at the time (anti-imitation). The Yuan brothers disparage learning and extols spontaneous feelings. They also included the “appetites and desires” 食色 as legitimate subjects of literary expression. 金聖嘆was the spiritual heir of 李贄 and the Yuans, who places high value in individualism and popular literature, holding that genuine emotion is sufficient to make anyone a poet. 葉燮’s conception of poetry is expressive, poetry is the voice of the heart, reflects the poet’s intellectual capacity and moral character. Along the same lineage is 袁枚, according to whom, 性情 refers to one’s personal nature in general while 性靈 a special kind of artistic sensibility. His advocating of love poetry brought him into conflict with Confucian moralists such as 沈德潛.
Comparative: Chinese expressive theory seldom emphasizes creativity, which lies in the core in the western expressive theorists. The Chinese do no value intense emotion as the western do, nor would they go as far as to identify intuition with god poetry except for Li Zhi and Jin Shengtan.
Technical:
Literature is a craft much like other crafts such as carpentry, a craft require definite rules and methods, and the writing process a deliberate composition. A forerunner is 沈約, the proposer of 四聲八病, knowledge of prosodic niceties is the sine qua non of literature. Early Ming poet 高啓 is another major literati holding this view (風格氣格 style; 格律格調 prosodic rules) 李東陽 also pays great attention to the formal and technical aspects of literature. 李夢陽 a supporter of Archaism 古文派 also emphasizes the technical aspect, by drawing an analogy between literature and poetry. 李漁’s dramatic criticism is distinguished from his contemporaries for its attention to structure 結構, comparing dramaturgy to tailoring. 翁方綱 (1733-1818) turned 王士禎’s metaphysical theory of “spirit and tone” 神韻 into a technical-aesthetic one by identifying 神韻 with 格調, formal style, and see the poet as a craftsman. The following follower of the technical school is 桐城派, led by 姚鼐, 劉大櫆. Liu’s 神 and 氣 have little to do with the writer’s intuitive apprehension of reality but are the forces controlling technical aspects such as rhyme, diction and syntax. (//same characters for different critics in different time and in different cultural contexts denotes totally different meanings//) and 曾國藩.
Aesthetic:
Literature as beautiful verbal patterns (etymological origin). Aesthetic school focuses on the immediate effects of a literary work on the reader (the technique school’s focus in the writer’s relation to his work). 司馬相如, 司空圖 and its influence lasted into the twentieth century, through scholars such as 劉師培 and 黃侃
Pragmatic:
Pragmatic theories concern with the function of literature, as a means to achieve political, social, moral, or educational purposes. It is the most influential since it is backed up by Confucianism (the perfecting of the social state and the state of man, so that the question of art can never be separated from questions of truth, justice, and virtue) James Liu holds that Confucius’s conception of literature is ultimately pragmatic. 王充 see literature’s function in improving morality. 鄭玄 stresses the admonitory function of poetry. 韓愈, the representative Neo-Confucian conceives of literature as a means of propagating the Dao, so called 文以載道. Similar view is held by 周敦頤, and 程頤, 程顥. The Qing saw the perpetuation of the pragmatic school in 沈德潛
__________________________________________________
這本薄薄的書居然斷斷續續花了5天！！！
充分顯示了如果一個人不在狀態衹想拖拉，效率可以低到什麽程度。
昨晚訂好了暑假回國機票。接下來再心猿意馬不好好看書就是十惡不赦的人了。
A. Literary History
B. Literary Criticism
1. Theoretical Criticism [a. theories of literature (nature& functions of literature) b. literary theories (form, genre, style, and technique)]
2. Practical Criticism [a. Interpretation b. Evaluation]
The Universe—the Work—the Writer—the Reader
This book is about Theories of Literature (aka, the nature and functions of literature)
Metaphysical:
Literature as a manifestation of the principle of the universe. The principle of the universe is referred as Dao, the unitary principle of all things and the totality of all beings. Daoist emphasizes the importance for the individual, in his relation to Nature; the Confucian emphasizes the importance for the individual, in his relations with others and following the moral Way which the sage established in accordance with the Way of Nature. The concept of Dao originates from The Book of Changes 易經, which draws an analogy between the configuration of heaven and the configuration of man, and the analogy between the natural phenomena and literature as parallel manifestations of the Dao. Also in 禮記 The Book of Rites, music is considered the harmony of heaven and earth. This is why music and poetry were closely associated (確實, 樂府, 曲子詞, 北曲etc…) Poetry is the heart/mind of heaven and earth—metaphysical concept of poetry. 陸機, 劉勰 (literature originates from the Dao and elevate literature to a status of cosmic significance). 文: wen 1) as patterns or configurations of natural phenomena, the manifestations of the cosmic Dao;2) as culture, as opposed to natural pattern; 3) as embellishment; 4) as the script/language. Aside from 劉勰, his contemporaries 昭明太子蕭統, 蕭綱, also elevate literature by associating it with Dao in order to serves his opinion of 文 as a belletristic one. (In Tang, the focus on metaphysical aspect is shifted to pragmatic aspect of 文, in parallel to this shift, the metaphysical concept of Dao is replaced by the Moral.) 老子one should remove rational knowledge from one’s mind so as to contemplate intuitively the Dao of Nature.莊子 Self-oblivious contemplation of Nature leads to intuitive union with the Dao (得魚忘筌/得意忘言). But for Zhuangzi, this intuitive cognition is not innate but can only be achieved by tense concentration and self-discipline, while Mencius (and the Ideal Philosopher Wang Yangming) holds that all men have an intuitive knowledge of right and wrong. 司空圖 was the first poet to voice explicitly the concept of poetry as an embodiment of the poet;s apprehension of the Dao, as we can see from his 二十四詩品. Among his admirers, 蘇軾. Su’s disciple, 黃庭堅 and his 江西詩派, however, holds the idea of meditating on ancient poetry in the same way as in spiritual exercises, because Huang was influenced by Chan. The combination of archaism 復古 and Chan is best illustrated by 嚴羽’s 滄浪詩話, Yan uses Chan primarily as an analogy to poetry: poetry should not be book learning, not rational discourse, not mechanical imitation of ancient poets. 謝榛 in his 四溟詩話 argues that the writing of poetry is based on qing& jing (情&景), thus directing the function of poetry to the expressive. 王夫之 also emphasizes the fusion of inner experience and external reality (poetry results from perfect consonance between the poet’s intuition and the underlying principles of things). 王士禎 (字”漁陽”), who believes that the ultimate aim of poetry is the attainment of spiritual awakening (not empirical knowledge based on sense-perception, but intuitive knowledge gained through encounter with Nature). 桐城派姚鼐 develops the readers’ perception of aesthetic qualities in poetry from the metaphysical concept. 王國維’s theory of 境界 has much in common with the theories of 王夫之 and 王士禎.
Comparative:
Metaphysical theory resembles the mimetic theory in the West since both are oriented towards the universe. But in the latter one the universe often refers to the transcendental (Platonic Ideas or God. Plato conceives poets and artists as imitating natural objects, which are themselves imperfect imitations of perfect and eternal Ideas, therefore he calls the action of mimesis “twice removed from Reality.”) In mimetic theories that follow the Transcendental Ideal, the Ideals are supposed to exist in some superlunary world, but in Chinese metaphysical theories the Dao is immanent in everything in Nature (The Dao is not an anthropomorphic deity). To 劉勰, language is a natural manifestation of the human mind, which is in turn a manifestation of the cosmic Dao, as spontaneously manifesting the Dao, in the “transformed state” of consciousness he has attained in which there is no longer any distinction between the subjective and the objective. In the Chinese case, there is imitation, as seen in the example of Archaism, 古文派 or 復古派. But archaism is not a theory of literature but about how to write. To Sydney, language and reason are both gifts from God, men consciously imitating Nature or being possessed by the Divine. As for the expressive mode, in western mimetic theories the poet projects his own feelings into external objects; while in metaphysical theory the poet empties his mind and keeps it still so as to be receptive of Dao. They accept the paradoxical nature of language, that is, it is inadequate to translate the ultimate reality but it is nevertheless a necessary means to communicate the incommunicable. But Mallarme sees it as a source of agony. Mike Dufrenne’s phenome logical theory differs from Chinese metaphysical one mainly because the western culture is characterized by anthropocentrism (以人爲中心), the phenomenologist resolved the subject-object dichotomy by positing a Being that transcends both, so did the Daoists resolve the same dichotomy by posting the Dao, which transcends Nature and Man. Both aim for the pre-reflective and pre-conceptual state of consciousness in which there is no distinction between the subject and the object—Language is the means by which the poet seeks to convey the preconceptual and therefore prelingual state of consciousness in which the subject and the object, the “I” and the “world,” are one, yet as soon as he speaks, he is creating a separation. (Very Lacanian!!!)
Deterministic:
Theories of literature that expound the concept of literature as an unconscious and inevitable reflection or revelation of contemporary political and social realities. “亡國之音”poetic omens (a peculiar Chinese belief that omens can take the form of anonymous folk songs). 鄭玄, 正音/變音; Wang Wan (1624-90)’s commentary on the rise and decline of the Tang dynasty is an apt example.
Expressive:
Literature, especially poetry, is a spontaneous expression of universal human emotions and that this actually accounted for the genesis of poetry in antiquity, as seen in the character for poetry 詩, etymologically, it denotes the expression of the heart/mind. Also, in the Book of Odes, 詩言志 poetry expresses the intent. 曹丕’s Discourse on Literature emphasizes individualism (literature as expression of personal 氣, or what 陸機 calls 才, are past of each individual’s nature and therefore differs from person to person/cannot be cultivated), 立德立功立言 to achieve immortality. Beginning in the Tang, expressive theory is subjugated to pragmatic one (e.g. morality). In the late Ming period, expressive theory is revived at the hands of 李贄, whose On the Childlike Heart/Mind 童心說 belongs to the Left Wing of Wang Yangming’s school of Idealistic philosophy. 王陽明左派 (李贄 also regards drama and fiction as literature). Following Li was the 公安三袁 (1560-1610) who take a stance against the Archaism 古文派 at the time (anti-imitation). The Yuan brothers disparage learning and extols spontaneous feelings. They also included the “appetites and desires” 食色 as legitimate subjects of literary expression. 金聖嘆was the spiritual heir of 李贄 and the Yuans, who places high value in individualism and popular literature, holding that genuine emotion is sufficient to make anyone a poet. 葉燮’s conception of poetry is expressive, poetry is the voice of the heart, reflects the poet’s intellectual capacity and moral character. Along the same lineage is 袁枚, according to whom, 性情 refers to one’s personal nature in general while 性靈 a special kind of artistic sensibility. His advocating of love poetry brought him into conflict with Confucian moralists such as 沈德潛.
Comparative: Chinese expressive theory seldom emphasizes creativity, which lies in the core in the western expressive theorists. The Chinese do no value intense emotion as the western do, nor would they go as far as to identify intuition with god poetry except for Li Zhi and Jin Shengtan.
Technical:
Literature is a craft much like other crafts such as carpentry, a craft require definite rules and methods, and the writing process a deliberate composition. A forerunner is 沈約, the proposer of 四聲八病, knowledge of prosodic niceties is the sine qua non of literature. Early Ming poet 高啓 is another major literati holding this view (風格氣格 style; 格律格調 prosodic rules) 李東陽 also pays great attention to the formal and technical aspects of literature. 李夢陽 a supporter of Archaism 古文派 also emphasizes the technical aspect, by drawing an analogy between literature and poetry. 李漁’s dramatic criticism is distinguished from his contemporaries for its attention to structure 結構, comparing dramaturgy to tailoring. 翁方綱 (1733-1818) turned 王士禎’s metaphysical theory of “spirit and tone” 神韻 into a technical-aesthetic one by identifying 神韻 with 格調, formal style, and see the poet as a craftsman. The following follower of the technical school is 桐城派, led by 姚鼐, 劉大櫆. Liu’s 神 and 氣 have little to do with the writer’s intuitive apprehension of reality but are the forces controlling technical aspects such as rhyme, diction and syntax. (//same characters for different critics in different time and in different cultural contexts denotes totally different meanings//) and 曾國藩.
Aesthetic:
Literature as beautiful verbal patterns (etymological origin). Aesthetic school focuses on the immediate effects of a literary work on the reader (the technique school’s focus in the writer’s relation to his work). 司馬相如, 司空圖 and its influence lasted into the twentieth century, through scholars such as 劉師培 and 黃侃
Pragmatic:
Pragmatic theories concern with the function of literature, as a means to achieve political, social, moral, or educational purposes. It is the most influential since it is backed up by Confucianism (the perfecting of the social state and the state of man, so that the question of art can never be separated from questions of truth, justice, and virtue) James Liu holds that Confucius’s conception of literature is ultimately pragmatic. 王充 see literature’s function in improving morality. 鄭玄 stresses the admonitory function of poetry. 韓愈, the representative Neo-Confucian conceives of literature as a means of propagating the Dao, so called 文以載道. Similar view is held by 周敦頤, and 程頤, 程顥. The Qing saw the perpetuation of the pragmatic school in 沈德潛
__________________________________________________
這本薄薄的書居然斷斷續續花了5天！！！
充分顯示了如果一個人不在狀態衹想拖拉，效率可以低到什麽程度。
昨晚訂好了暑假回國機票。接下來再心猿意馬不好好看書就是十惡不赦的人了。
有关键情节透露
- 作者: James J.Y. Liu
- 出版: University of Chicago Press
- 定价: GBP 3.95
- 装帧: Paperback
- 页数: 208
- 时间: 1979-6