Unit 21

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SUB means "under," as in subway, submarine, and substandard.  A subject is a person who is under the authority of another. The word subscribe once meant "to write one's name underneath," and subscription was the act of signing at the end of a document or agreement.
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subconscious: Existing in the mind just below the level of awareness.
* After dropping three dishes in a week I began to think that there might be some kind of subconscious urge to destroy my case of butterfingers.
We are generally not aware, or at least not fully aware, of our subconscious mental activity. But subconscious thought does affect our feelings and behavior and is often revealed in dreams, slips of the tongue, and artistic expression. The subconscious mind can be a hiding place for anxiety, a source of great activity, and often the reason behind our own mysterious behavior, especially when subconscious motives are at work.
 
subjugate: To bring under control and rule as a subject; conquer, subdue.
* The government claimed it was just trying to protect national security, but others saw its bringing of criminal charges against reporters as an attempt to subjugate the new media.
To subjugate means literally to "bring under the yoke." In the time of ancient Rome, conquered troops were made to march under a yoke as a sign of their submission to the victor. Modern armies no longer use an actual yoke, but subjugation is still every bit as painful and humiliating, whether of one nation by another, one ethnic group by other, or one religious group by another. Ending the subjugation of the black majority in South Africa was for many years a goal for concerned people around the world.

subliminal: Not quite strong enough to be sensed or perceived consciously.
* A few worried parents claimed that some heavy-metal songs contain subliminal messages--in the form of recorded backwards--that urge young fans to take up devil worship.
The Latin word limen means "threshold," so something subliminal exists just below the threshold or border of conscious awareness. The classic example of a subliminal message is "Eat popcorn" flashed on a movie screen so quickly that the audience doesn't even notice it. The theory is that the mind perceives subliminal messages even if it doesn't know it does. Though the effectiveness of subliminal messages is still uncertain, hundreds of self-help audio tapes are produced each year, promising to deliver wonderful results by influencing you subliminally.

subversion: (1) An attempt to overthrow a government by working secretly from within. (2) The corrupting of someone or something by weakening morals, loyalty, or faith.
* It is often easier for a government to withstand attack from the outside than to survive subversion from within.
Subversion is literally the "turning over" of something--what was on top us turned under. During the 1950s and 1960s, many people worried about attempts at subversion of the U.S. government by communists. But it was possible to see subversive activities where non existed, and some innocent people suffered as a result. Similarly, some of the French have seen the appearance of words like weekend and floppy disk in their language as evidence of the subversion of French by English, though it may in fact just be part of the natural growth and development of the language.
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HYPER is a Greek prefix that means "above or beyond it all." To be hypercritical or hypersensitive is to be critical or sensitive above and beyond what is normal. Hyperinflation is inflation that is growing at a very high rate. And hyperextend means to extend a joint (such as a knee or elbow) beyond its usual limits. A littleused but useful hyper- word is hyperhidrosis, meaning "excessive sweating."
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hyperactive: Excessively active.
* Stephen King's hyperactive imagination has produced many fantastic stories, and probably many more nightmares in his readers.
In medical or psychological terms, hyperactive describes a condition with unpleasant consequences. A hyperactive child usually has a very short attention span and cannot sit still, and this hyperactivity can lead to a learning disability or simply get the child in trouble for being disruptive. But not every high-spirited child is hyperactive. Hyper- means "beyond what is normal," but having a high energy is quite normal for many children.

hyperbole: Extreme exaggeration.
* The food in the restaurant was quite good, but it couldn't live up to the hyperbole that had been used to describe it.
Adversities and sports commentators make their living by their skillful use of hyperbole. Presenting each year's Superbowl as "the greatest contest in the history of sports" certainly qualifies as hyperbole, especially since the final scores are usually so lopsided. Equally hyperbolic are advertisers' claims that this year's new car model is "the revolutionary car you've been waiting for" when it's only slightly different from last year's--which of course was once described in the same glowing terms.

hypertension: High blood pressure.
* Pregnancy is often accompanied by mild hypertension that doesn't threaten the mother's life.
You might think that hypertension is what happens when tension builds to an excruciating level, but hypertension actually refers to high blood pressure, a condition in which arteries or veins become blocked or narrowed, making the heart work harder to pump blood. A hypertensive condition can lead to a heart attack or stroke, but there are often no warning symptoms associated with it. When detected, however, hypertension can generally be controlled with medication and changes in diet.

hyperventilate: To breathe rapidly and deeply.
* They laughed so hard began to hyperventilate and feel giddy.
Hyperventilating can be a response to fear and anxiety, among other causes. A test pilot who panics and hyperventilate faces a dangerous situation. When the level of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream goes down and the oxygen level goes up, blood vessels constrict and the body can't get enough oxygen even though it is may even faint. To guard against this, pilots are taught to control their breathing into a paper bag, which raises the level of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream and restores normal breathing. But athletes such as swimmers may intentionally hyperventilate before a race to fill their bodies with needed oxygen.
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PRE, one of the most common of all English prefixes, comes from  prae, the Latin word meaning "before" or "in front of." A television program precedes another by coming on the air earlier. You make a prediction by saying something will happen before it occurs. A person who presumes to know makes an assumption before he or she has all the facts. Someone with a prejudice against a class of people has formed an opinion of individuals before having met them.
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precept: A commnad or principle that is a general rule of action or conduct.
* Our writing teacher never tires of reminding us of that fundamental precept of creative writing: Write about what you know.
Precept includes the root capere, the Latin verb meaning "to take." Thus, a precept is a rule or principle that one takes in before doing something. A precept is usually advice that is broadly worded and intended to serve as a guide for individual conduct. Ever since Hippocrates, physicians have tried to follow the precept laid down by the Father of Medicine himself:"First, do no harm." The precept known as the Golden Rule states "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." The precept "If you can't say anything nice about someone, then say nothing at all" is one that almost everyone remembers--and disregards.

precocious: Showing the qualities or abilities of an adult at an unusually early age.
* Some thought the precocious child star of the new sitcom was witty and cute; others thought she was just a brat.
Growing from a child to an adult is like the slow ripening of fruit, and that is the image that gave us 
precocious. The word is based on the Latin verb coquere, meaning "to ripen" or "to cook," but is comes most directly from the adjective praecox, which means "ripening early or before its time." The Latin word was first used to describe plants and fruits, but later also to describe a child who is unusually mature at an early age. Precocity can occasionally be annoying; but precocious children do not come precooked, only "preripened."

predispose: (1) To influence in advance in order to create a particular attitude. (2) To make one more likely to develop a particular disease or physical condition.
* Growing up in a house full of sisters had predisposed her to find her friendships with other women. 
Predispose and dispose both mean putting someone in a frame of mind to be ready or willing to do something. Thus, good teachers know techniques that will predispose children to learn. Predispose differs from dispose by implying that the frame of mind is created some time before it becomes obvious. A belief in the essential goodness of people will predispose young people to accept real violence as normal. And in the medical sense, malnutrition over a long period can predispose a person to all kinds of infections.

prerequisite: Something that is required in advance to achieve a goal or to carry out a function.
* In most states, minimal insurance coverage is a prerequisite for registering an automobile.
Prerequisite comes from combining pre- with requirere, the Latin verb meaning "to need or require." A prerequisite can be anything that must be accomplished or acquired before something else can be done. Possessing a valid credit card is often a prerequisite for renting a car. A physical exam may be a prerequisite for receiving a life-insurance policy. As every college student 
knows, successful completion of an introductory course is often a prerequisite for enrollment in an 
intermediate-level course. 
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PARA can mean "beside": parallel lines run beside each other. It can mean "beyond or outside": paranormal actively  is beyond normal experience, and paranoid,  i which para- combines with the Greek word nouns, "mind" means a little outside of one's mind. Finally, para- can mean "associated with, especially as an assistant": paramedics and paralegals assist doctors and lawyers, and a paramilitary force assists regular military forces.
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paradigm: A very clear or typical example showing how something is to be done.
* American corporate executives have been forced to ask if Japanese-run companies present a useful paradigm of successful business management.
Paradigm has several closely related and often confusing meanings, including "typical example," "outstanding example," "typical pattern of behavior," and "theoretical framework." Still, it has its uses. Political analysts, for instance, will write that Jimmy Carter's original campaign for the presidency in 1976 serves as a paradigm of late-20th-century political strategy. When we say that modern medicine needs to find new paradigms for health-care delivery, the "excellent example" and theoretical framework" meanings overlap. Paradigm can also be very close in meaning to paragon, discussed below.

paradox: (1) A statement that seems to go against common sense but may still be true. (2) A person or thing with qualities that seem to be opposites.
* They had to face the paradox that their family, which was the source of so much love and affection, could also be the source of great hurt and anger.
Paradox comes from a Greek word meaning "contrary to expectations"; combining the para- root with the Greek word for "thought," a paradox is something that takes us outside our normal thinking. No one has yet solved the paradox that an infinitely large universe and a universe that ends somewhere are equally unimaginable. Closer to home, we have the simpler paradox faced at one point or another by most people in regard to their mates: we can't live with them, and we can't live without them.

paragon: A model of excellence or perfection.
* Mother Teresa has often been described as a paragon of saintliness and compassion.
A paragon is usually someone we hold up beside ourselves for comparison. Stories about Abraham Lincoln walking miles to school each day from his log cabin home and studying law books work and self-reliance. Florence Nightingale is considered a paragon of bravery and determination for her efforts to care for wounded soldiers in the Crimean War. And we are all often invited to see our own mothers as paragons of virtue--at least around Mother's Day.

parameter: (1) A physical quality whose value determines the characteristics or behavior of a system; a characteristic element. (2) A limit or boundary.
* Weather forecasters monitor all the parameters of atmospheric behavior, including temperature, pressure, and wild direction.
Up until this century, parameter was used only as a technical term referring to things that could be measured and that affected the characteristics of other things. But today, in addition to being the element that determines how something behaves, a parameter can be any distinctive element. So we can say that political dissent is one of the parameters of modern life. Similarly, parameter has come to mean a limit or boundary life. Similarly, parameter has come to mean a limit or boundary to a system or concept. So all is well on the starship Enterprise when systems are functioning within established parameters.
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META is a prefix in English with several different meanings. It can mean "after" or "behind," as it does in several terms referring to bonesl for example, the metacarpal bones are the hand bones that come right after the carpus, or wrist bones. It can also mean "change," as in metamorphosis, a "change in shape." And it can mean "beyond": metalanguage is language used to talk about language, which requires going beyond normal language.
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metabolism: The biological process by which sustances in a living thing are built up or broken down.
* Some small animals have such a high rate of metabolism that they must eat several times their own weight each day to stay alive.
Metabolism means specifically the chemical changes inside cells relating to the breaking down of food molecules to release energy and the building up of new material. More broadly, metabolism is the total process by which a particular substance, such as a food or medicine, is handles in the body. If one person's metabolism is fast, she may stay thin no matter how much she eats; if another's is slow, he puts on weight just by looking at food.

metaphorical: Relating to figure of speech in which a word or phrase meaning one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a similarity between them.
* "The eyes are the windows of the soul" and "You ain't nothing' but a hound dog" may be different kinds of poetry, but both are metaphors.
Metaphor comes from a Greek word meaning "transfer"; thus, a metaphor transfers the meaning of one word or phrase to another. Often, as in the examples above, metaphors include a form of the verb be, and they are often contrasted with similes, which are usually introduced by like or as ("O, my luve's like a red, red rose"). But, metaphors don't have to include the verb be. When we say that the teacher gave us a mountain of homework or that someone is drowning in paperwork, these too are metaphorical statements.

metaphysics: The part of philosophy having to do with the ultimate causes and basic nature of things.
* Most members of the congregation preferred to hear their minister preach about virtue, and would become restless when his sermons headed in the direction of metaphysics.
Just as physics deal with  the laws that govern the physical world(such as those of gravity or the properties of of different types of particles), metaphysics describes what is beyond physics--the nature and origin of reality itself, the immortal soul, and the existence of a supreme being. Opinions about these metaphysical topics vary widely, since what is being discussed cannot be observed or measured or even truly known to exist. So most metaphysical questions are still as far from a final answer as they were when Plato and Aristotle were asking them.

metonymy: A figure of speech in which the name of one thing is used for the name of something else that is associated with it or related to it.
* When Wall Street has the jitters, the White House issues a statement, and the people wait for answers from City Hall, metonymy is having a busy day.
At first glance, metaphor and metonymy seem close in meaning, but there are differences. In a metaphor we substitute one thing with something else that is usually quite different; for example, information superhighway equates electronic data traveling over wire with cars and trucks on a highway. In metonymy, we replace one word or phrase(such as "stock market" or "local government officials" in the examples above) with another word or phrase associated with it. Most familiar metonyms are place-names, such as Madison Avenue for "the advertising business," or Detroit for "the auto industry." But using the word bench to refer to a judge or a court, and crown to refer to a king or queen, are also examples of metonymy.
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PER, a Latin preposition that generally means "through," "throughout," or "thoroughly," has been a thoroughly useful root throughtout its history and through all its many meanings. The "through" and "throughout" meanings are seen in perforate, "to bore through," perennial, "throughout the years," and permanent, "remaining throughout." And the "thoroughly" sense shows up in persuade, for "thoroughly advise," and perverted, "thoroughly turned around."
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percolate: (1) To trickle or filter through something porous. (2) To become spread through.
* Her idea was that the money she spent on luxuries would eventually percolate down to the needy.
Percolate comes from a Latin verb meaning "to put through a sieve." Something that percolates filters through something else, just as small particles pass through a sieve. Water, for instance, is drawn through soil by gravity or absorption, and this percolation usually cleans the water. Unfortunately, pesticides and liquid chemical wastes can also percolate through soil and contaminate groundwater. But just as water percolates through the ground, an awareness of the dangers of chemical and industrial wastes has slowly percolated through the population.
 
peremptory: (1) Putting an end to an action, debate, or delay. (2) Urgent or commanding in tone; showing an attitude of self-assurance.
* The staff was utterly intimidated by the new boss's icy stare and her peremptory tone when turning down all requests for special favors.
Peremptory comes from a Latin word meaning "to take entirely" or "destroy." Something peremptory takes away entirely a person's right to make further comments or requests. Peremptory suggests a dictatorial manner and a refusal to permit delays or objections of any kind, no matter how valid. A tough boss will call you to his office with a peremptory summons, tell you exactly what is expected of you, and then peremptorily dismiss you, perhaps with peremptory 
wave of the hand. In the courtroom, a lawyer's peremptory challenge is usually a refusal to seat a juror in which the lawyer isn't required to state any reason.

permeate: (1) To spread throughout. (2) To pass through the pores or small openings of.
* The aroma of the apple pie permeated the entire house while it was baking.
A sens of dread permeates the campus at the approach of exams, with so much to learn and so little time. When the exams are over, a sense of relief permeates the student body, along with a strong desire to celebrate. A boot can be permeated by water; untreated leather is easily permeated, but certain oils make it much less permeable. The best boots to have are those made of impermeable material.

persevere: To keep at something in spite of difficulties, opposition, or discouragement.
* Despite their lack of success so far, research scientists have persevered in their search for a cure for AIDS.
The early settlers of the New World persevered in the face of of overwhelming danger. The whole settlement of Roanoke Island disappeared mysteriously without a trace. The Pilgrims of Plymouth Plantation lost half their number in the first winter to disease and hunger. But their perseverance paid off: within five years, their community was healthy and self-sufficient.
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ANT/ANTI is opposite to or opposes something else. An antiseptic or an antibiotic fights germs; an anticlimax is the opposite of a climax; an antidote is given against a poison; and an antacid fights acid in the stomach. Be careful not to confuse anti- with ante-, meaning "before": antebellum means "before a war," not "opposed to war."
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antagonist: A person who opposes or is unfriendly toward another; an opponent.
* Each time gets the best of his not very wily antagonist, Wile E. Coyote, Road Runner's eloquent comment is "Meep-meep."
On stage or screen or in a story or novel, the protagonist is the main character and the antagonist is the opposing one. Pro- and ant- usually ark the good and bad characters, but not always; there may instead be an evil protagonist and a good antagonist. In the drama of the real world, it is especially hard to sort out which is which, so we usually speak of both parties to a conflict as antagonists. During a strike, representatives for labor and conflict as antagonists. During the strike, representatives of labor and management become antagonists; they often manage to antagonize each other, and the antagonism often remains after the strike is over.

antigen: A chemical substance (such as a protein) that, when introduced into the body, causes the body to form antibodies against.
* Our bodies fight off disease and infection with white blood cells that recognize antigens on the surface of invading organisms and produce antibodies to combat them.
The anti- in antigen refers to antibodies, and the -gen means "producer." So just as allergen produces an allergy and a pathogen produces a pathology or disease, so an antigen produces an antibody, a substance that fights off harmful outside elements. Antigens are rodlike structures that stick out from the surface of an invading organism and allow it to attach itself to cells in the invaded body. But in doing so, they signal the body that they are present and it immediately goes to work to fight off the invader.

antipathy: A strong dislike.
* Having worked his way up from the factory floor to the executive suite, he felt an antipathy toward anyone whose advancement was based on inherited money or privilege.
Before and during the Civil War, many citizens of northern states felt a decided antipathy for slavery and those who practiced and defended it. In the southern states, many citizens felt antipathy toward busybody Northerners who would meddle in their affairs and destroy the basis for their economy and way of life. This kind of antipathy can develop into warfare. But not all feelings of antipathy are so intense.

antithesis: (1) The contrast or opposition of ideas. (2) The exact opposite.
* Life on the small college campus, with its personal freedom and responsibility, was the antithesis of what many students had known in high school.
Writers and speechmakers use the traditional pattern know as antithesis for its resounding effect: John Kennedy's famous "ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country" is an example. But antithesis normally means "opposite": war is the antithesis of peace; wealth is the antithesis of poverty; love is the antithesis of hate. Holding two antithetical ideas in your head at the same time--for example, that you are the sole master of your fate but also the helpless victim of your terrible upbringing--is so common as to be almost normal.
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CONTA is the Latin word quivalent of anti- and it too means essentially "against" or "contrary to" or "in contrast to." Contrary itself comes directly from this prefix and means simply "opposite" or "opposed." A contrast "stands agasint" something else to which it is compared. Contrapuntal music sets one melody agasint another and produces harmony, which no one is opposed to.
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contraband: (1) Goods that are forbidden by law to be owned or brought into or out of a country. (2) Smuggled goods.
* He would drive up the interstate after midnight, peddling his contraband to wary gas-station attendants.
In Latin a bannus was an order or decree, so a contrabannum was something that went against a decree. The Latin word helped create the Italian word contrabbando, from which we get contraband. Contraband items are not always illegal; they may simply be things (such as cigarettes) that are taxed. So a dealer in such contraband can charge a little less and still make enormous profits. Of course, if the item is actually forbidden, like illegal drugs, then the potential profit is much greater.

contraindication: Something (such as a symptom or condition) that makes a particular treatment, medication, or procedure likely to be unsafe.
* A history of stomach ulcers is a contraindication to regular use of aspirin.
Doctors use the word indication to mean a symptom or circumstance that makes a particular medical treatment desirable. Serious anxiety, for example, is often an indication for prescribing a tranquilizer. A contraindication, then, is a symptom or condition that makes a treatment risky, such as taking certain other medications at the same time. Drugs and conditions that are contraindicated for a medication are often listed on its label. Patients can guard against the dangers of drug interaction by reading labels carefully and telling their doctors what else they are currently taking.
 
contravene: (1) To go against or act contrary to; to violate. (2) To oppose in an argument, to contradict.
* The levels of pollutants coming from the new power plant were found to contravene both state and federal environmental standards.
Contravene is often used is legal documents and writing. A legal scholar may write, for instance, that no state law may contravene the U.S. Constitution or federal laws based on it. But nonlegal uses are also common. An experimental filmmaker may make a movie in a way that contravenes Hollywood traditions. In a small town, it's easy to get in trouble for any contraventions of usual patterns of behavior, such as failing to mow your lawn.

contretemps: An embarrasing occurence or situation.
* He tried to make light of his angry argument with the boss by referring to it as "our recent little contretemps."
This is not a word you will hear or need to use very often, but is has its uses. Its original meaning in French was "against the time" or "out of time," thus indicating a misstep in a dance or a mistake in one's social "rhythm." It is normally used today to refer to an embarrassing argument, or to any argument or dispute. With its slightly French pronunciation and its extremely polite tone, it is a word that can lighten a moment or ease some tension. Contretemps has often been used to 
refer to displays of anger among diplomats of anger among diplomats and other government officials. For example, the President and the Speaker of the House might have to patch things up after a contretemps over the budget bill.
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