A History of Modern Europe

A classic in its field, loved by instructors and students for its narrative flair, humor, authority, and comprehensive coverage. More than 100,000 copies sold!

Available in both one-volume and two-volume paperback editions, A History of Modern Europe presents a panoramic survey of modern Europe from the Renaissance to the present day. A single author lends a unified approach an...

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A classic in its field, loved by instructors and students for its narrative flair, humor, authority, and comprehensive coverage. More than 100,000 copies sold!

Available in both one-volume and two-volume paperback editions, A History of Modern Europe presents a panoramic survey of modern Europe from the Renaissance to the present day. A single author lends a unified approach and consistent style throughout, with an emphasis on the connections of events and people over time.

The Third Edition, like the two before it, is authoritative and up-to-date. New to the Third Edition is the theme of empire. From the imperial rivalries between France and Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, through the rise and fall of the Ottoman Turkish empire, and on into the imperial history of the twentieth century-decolonization, the spread of the Soviet empire, and the imperial power of the United States-the theme of empire helps students find commonalities among the events of European history.

John Merriman is the Charles Seymour Professor of History at Yale University. A specialist in nineteenth century French history, Merriman earned his Ph. D at the University of Michigan. He is the author of many books, including The Margins of City Life: Explorations on the French Urban Frontier, 1815–1851; Red City: Limoges and the French Nineteenth Century; The Agony of the Re...

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John Merriman is the Charles Seymour Professor of History at Yale University. A specialist in nineteenth century French history, Merriman earned his Ph. D at the University of Michigan. He is the author of many books, including The Margins of City Life: Explorations on the French Urban Frontier, 1815–1851; Red City: Limoges and the French Nineteenth Century; The Agony of the Republic: The Repression of the Left in Revolutionary France, 1848–1851; and, most recently, The Stones of Balazuc: A French Village in Time (Norton, 2002). He regularly teaches the survey of modern European history at Yale.

PART ONE FOUNDATIONS
Chapter 1 Medieval Legacies and Transforming Discoveries
Medieval Continuities
The Fragmentation of Europe
At the Crossroads of Cultures
The Structure of Society
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PART ONE FOUNDATIONS
Chapter 1 Medieval Legacies and Transforming Discoveries
Medieval Continuities
The Fragmentation of Europe
At the Crossroads of Cultures
The Structure of Society
Feudalism
A Subsistence Economy
Religion and Popular Culture
The Emergence of Early Modern Europe
A Rising Population
An Expanding Economy
The Growth of Towns
Municipal Liberties
The Emergence of Sovereign States
Developing State Structures
Limits to State Authority
Transforming Discoveries
Gunpowder, Warfare, and Armies
The Printing Press and the Power of the Printed Word
Exploration and Conquest in the New
World: The Origins of European Empire
Conclusion
Chapter 2 The Renaissance
The City-States of the Italian Peninsula
Thriving Economies
Social Structure
Renaissance Political Life
Florence: Anatomy of a Renaissance City
A Dynamic Culture
The Rediscovery of Classical Learning
From Scholasticism to Humanism
The Renaissance and Religion
The Renaissance Man and Woman
Renaissance Art
Architecture
Patronage and the Arts
Renaissance Artists
Painting and Sculpture
High Renaissance Style
The End of the Renaissance
Economic Decline
Foreign Invasion
Machiavelli
The Decline of the City-States
Impulses Elsewhere
Chapter 3 The Two Reformations
The Northern Renaissance
Northern Art and Humanism
Erasmus’s Humanistic Critique of the Church
The Roots of the Reformation
The Great Schism (1378–1417)
Heretical and Spiritual Movements
The Challenge of Conciliarism to Papal Authority
Clerical Abuses and Indulgences
Martin Luther
Social Background of the Reformation in the German States
Urban Centers of Reform
The Process of Reform
The Peasants’ Revolt
The Spread of the Reformation
Divisions within Christendom
Charles V and the Protestants
The Peace of Augsburg
The Reformation in Switzerland and France
Zwingli and Reform
Radical Reformers
Jean Calvin and Reform
Calvinist Conversions
The English Reformation
Henry VIII and the Break with Rome
After the Break with Rome
The Catholic Reformation
Retreat to Dogmatism
Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits
The Council of Trent
Putting Its House in Order
Culture during the Two Reformations
Print Culture
Lay Education and Reading
Popular Rituals and Festivals
The Role of Women
The Baroque Style
The Legacy of the Two Reformations
Chapter 4 The Wars of Religion
The Wars of Religion in Sixteenth-Century France
A Strengthened Monarchy
Economic Crisis
French Calvinists and the Crisis of the French State
Henry of Navarre
Statemaking
Louis XIII and the Origins of Absolute Rule
The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)
Factionalism in the Holy Roman Empire
The Origins of the Thirty Years’ War
Conflict in Bohemia
The Expansion of the Conflict
The Danish Period
The Swedish Interlude
The Armies of the Thirty Years’ War
The Wars of Religion and Dynastic Struggles (1635–1648)
The Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
PART TWO STATEMAKING
Chapter 5 The Rise of the Atlantic Economy: Spain and England
Economic Expansion
Increased Agricultural Productivity
Expansion of Trade
The Global Economy
Price Revolution and Depression
The Rise of Spain
Centralization and the Spanish Monarchy
The Spanish Economy
The Expansion of the Spanish Empire
The Age of Philip II
The Rise of England
The House of Tudor
Religious Settlement and Conflict under Elizabeth I
Elizabeth’s Statemaking
Demographic and Economic Expansion
English Society in the Tudor Period
The Quest for Public Order
The Elizabethan Theater
An Emerging Empire of Trade
The Decline of Spain
The Dutch Revolt
Economic Decline
An Empire Spread Too Thin
Conclusion
Chapter 6 England and the Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century
Conflicts in Stuart England
Conflicts between James I and Parliament
Religious Divisions
Charles I and Parliament Clash
The English Civil War
Moving toward Conflict
Taking Sides
Oliver Cromwell and the New Model Army
Divisions within Parliament
Radicals
Parliament’s Victory
The Puritan Republic and Restoration
The Glorious Revolution
Stuart Religious Designs
The “Protestant Wind”
The Bill of Rights
The Golden Age of the Dutch Republic
The Structure of the Dutch State
Expanding Economy
Tolerance and Prosperity
Seventeenth-Century Dutch Culture
The Decline of the Dutch Republic
Conclusion
Chapter 7 The Age of Absolutism, 1650–1720
Theories of Absolutism
Characterizing Absolute Rule
Monarchs and Nobles
Expanding State Structures
Absolutism and Warfare
Absolutism and Religion
Monumentalism in Architecture and Art
Absolutism in France
The Fronde: Taming “Overmighty Subjects”
Mercantilism under Louis XIV
The Absolute Louis XIV
Louis XIV at Versailles
Louis XIV’s Persecution of Religious Minorities
The Limits of French Absolutism
The Balance of Power
The Habsburg Monarchy
The Rise of Prussia
The Russian and Swedish Empires
The Expansion of Muscovy
The Rival Swedish Empire
Peter the Great Turns Westward
Louis XIV’s Dynastic Wars
The Modern State
PART THREE NEW CULTURAL AND POLITICAL HORIZON
Chapter 8 The New Philosophy of Science
Changing Views of the Universe
Ancient and Medieval Science
Copernicus Challenges the Aristotelian View of the Universe
The Universal Laws of the Human Body
Brahe and Kepler Explore the Heavens
Francis Bacon and the Scientific Method
Galileo and Science on Trial
Descartes and Newton: Competing Theories of Scientific Knowledge
Descartes and Deductive Reasoning
The Newtonian Synthesis
The Culture of Science
The Diffusion of the Scientific Method
The Uses of Science
Science and Religion
Consequences of the Scientific Revolution
Chapter 9 Enlightened Thought and the Republic of Letters
Enlightened Ideas
Intellectual Influences on Enlightened Thought
The Republic of Ideas
Montesquieu
Voltaire
Diderot
Rousseau
The Diffusion and Expansion of the Enlightenment
Religious Enthusiasm and Skepticism
Expansion of the Cultural Base
The Arts
Music
The Spread of Enlightened Ideas
Enlightened Absolutism
Reform of Jurisprudence
Educational Reform
Religious Toleration
Frederick the Great
Rural Reform
Currents of the Late Enlightenment
Enlightened Thought and Economic Freedom
German Idealism
The Enlightenment and Public Opinion
Forbidden Publications and the Undermining of Authority
Legacy of the Enlightenment
Chapter 10 Eighteenth-Century Economic and Social Change
The Social Order
Nobles
The British Landed Elite
The Clergy
The “Middling Sort”
Peasants
The Beginnings of the Industrial Revolution
Stagnation and Growth in Agriculture
Population Growth
Manufacturing: Guilds and Domestic Industry
Inventions
Expanding British Economy
Expanding Continental Economies
Social Changes
The Growth of Towns and Cities
Social Movement within the Elite
The Changing Condition of the Poor
Social Control
Protecting Property in Britain
Subordination and Social Control
A Century of Contrasts
Chapter 11 Eighteenth-Century Dynastic Rivalries and Politics 386
The Eighteenth-Century State System
Global Rivalries
The Hanoverians and the Stuarts in Great Britain
The Prussian-Austrian Dynastic Rivalry in Central Europe
Conflicts between the Great Powers
The War of the Austrian Succession
The Seven Years’ War
Armies and Their Tactics in the Eighteenth Century
Navies
Political Change in Great Britain
Expanding Central Government in Britain
The Role of the House of Commons
The Development of Party Politics in the 1760s: Whigs and Tories
The Rise of British Nationalism
Challenges to Established Authority
British Radicals
American Revolutionaries
The Parlements and the French Monarchy
Other Movements for Reform
Declining Power, Disappearing State: The Ottoman Empire and Poland
The Decline of Ottoman Turkish Power in Europe
The Partitions of Poland Conclusion
PART FOUR REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE, 1789–1850
Chapter 12 The French Revolution
The Old Regime in Crisis
Long-Term Causes of the French Revolution
The Financial Crisis
The First Stages of the Revolution
Convoking the Estates-General
Storming of the Bastille
The Great Fear and the Night of August 4
Consolidating the Revolution
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
“The Baker, the Baker’s Wife, and the Baker’s Little Boy”
Reforming the Church and Clergy
The Reforms of 1791
Resistance and Revolution
The Flight to Varennes
War and the Second Revolution
Reactions to the French Revolution in Europe
A Second Revolution
Counter-Revolution
The Terror
The Final Stages of the Revolution
Thermidor
The Directory: Politics and Society
Instability
The Eighteenth Brumaire
Perspectives on the French Revolution
Europe an Responses to the Revolution
Historians’ Views of the Revolution
Chapter 13 Napoleon and Europe
Napoleon’s Rise to Power
The Young Bonaparte
Napoleon and the Revolution
Consolidation of Power
Establishment of the Consulate
The Concordat
Napoleon’s Leadership
Wars of Conquest and Empire
The Corsican Warrior
The Foundations of the French Empire
Institutional Foundations: Imperial Centralization
Legal Foundations: The Napoleonic Code
Social Foundations: The Imperial Hierarchy
The Tide Turns against Napoleon
The Continental System
The Peninsular War
Stirrings of Nationalism in Napoleonic Europe
Military Reforms in Prussia and Austria
The Empire’s Decline and the Russian Invasion
The Defeat of Napoleon
Monarchical Restoration and Napoleon’s Return
The Bourbon Restoration
The 100 Days
Napoleon’s Legacy
Chapter 14 The Industrial Revolution
Preconditions for Transformation
Demographic Explosion
The Expanding Agricultural Base
Trains and Steamboats
A Variety of National Industrial Experiences
In the Vanguard: Britain’s Era of Mechanization
Industrialization in France
Industrialization in the German States
Sparse Industrialization in Southern and Eastern Europe
The Middle Classes
Diversity of the Middle Classes
The Entrepreneurial Ideal and Social Mobility
Rising Professions
Middle-Class Culture
Marriage and Family
Separate Spheres and the Cult of Domesticity
A Culture of Comfort
Education
Religion
The Ambiguities of Liberalism: Voluntarism versus State Intervention
Impact of the Industrial Revolution
Continuities on the Land
Urbanization
On the Move
Industrial Work and Workers
Gender and Family in the Industrial Age
Child Labor
The Laboring Poor
Class Consciousness
Workers’ Associations and Social Protest
The Origins of European Socialism
Utopian Socialists
Practical Socialists
Karl Marx and the Origins of “Scientific Socialism”
Conclusion
Chapter 15 Liberal Challenges to Restoration Europe
The Post-Napoleonic Settlement
The Treaty of Paris
Diplomatic Maneuvering at the Congress of Vienna
The Congress System
The Concert of Europe
Restoration Europe
The Restoration of Monarchs, Nobles, and Clergy
Conservative Ideology
Liberalism
Liberals and Politics
Laissez-Faire
Romanticism
Conservative Origins
Romantic Literature and Painting
Romantic Music
Stirrings of Revolt
Liberal Revolts in Spain, Portugal, and Italy
Stirrings in Germany
Cracks in the Congress of Europe: The Greek Revolt
The Decembrist Revolt in Russia
France: The Bourbon Restoration and the Revolution of 1830
Other Liberal Assaults on the Old Order
Independence for Belgium
Liberal Successes in Switzerland
Nationalist Dreams
The Revolt in Poland
Uprisings in Italy and Spain
German Nationalism in Central Europe
Crisis and Compromise in Great Britain
Religious and Electoral Reform
The Reform Bill of 1832
Chartism and the Repeal of the Corn Laws
Conclusion
Chapter 16 The Revolutions of 1848
Revolutionary Mobilization
The February Revolution in France
Revolution in the German States
Revolution in Central Europe
Revolution in the Italian States
The Elusive Search for Revolutionary Consensus
Crisis in France
The Frankfurt Parliament
Counter-Revolution
Counter-Revolution in Habsburg Central Europe
Prussian-Austrian Rivalry
The Counter-Revolution in the Italian States
The Agony of the French Second Republic
The Legacy of 1848
PART FIVE THE AGE OF MASS POLITICS
Chapter 17 The Era of National Unification
The Political Unification of Italy
Leadership for Italian Unification
Alliances and Warfare to Further
Italian Unification
Garibaldi and the Liberation of Southern Italy
Italy Unified
Limits to Unification
Italian Politics
The Rise of Italian Nationalism
The Unification of Germany
William I, Bismarck, and the Resolution of the Constitutional Crisis
Alliances and Warfare to Establish Prussian Leadership
The North German Confederation
The Franco-Prussian War and German Unification
Nationalist versus Internationalist Movements
William II and German Nationalism
National Awakenings in the Habsburg Lands
Diversity and Cohesion in the Habsburg Empire
Repression of Nationalism in the Habsburg Empire
Political Crisis and Foreign Policy Disasters
Creation of the Dual Monarchy
Ethnic Tensions and Nationalist Movements in the Dual Monarchy
Conclusion
Chapter 18 The Dominant Powers in the Age of Liberalism: Parliamentary Britain, Tsarist Russia, and Republican France
Victorian Britain
The Victorian Consensus
The Crimean War
The Liberal Era of Victorian Politics
The Reform Bill of 1867
Other Victorian Reforms
Mass Politics Come to Britain
Irish Home Rule
New Contours in British Political Life
Tsarist Russia
Stirrings of Reform in Russia
The Emancipation of the Serfs
The Expansion of the Russian Empire
Nihilists and Populists
Alexander III’s Empire
Unrest, Reform, and Revolution
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
The Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)
The Revolution of 1905
France: Second Empire and Third Republic
The Authoritarian Empire
Economic Growth
The “Liberal Empire”
The Franco-Prussian War and the Siege of Paris
The Paris Commune
Republican France
Monarchists and Republicans
The Third Republic
General Boulanger and Captain Dreyfus
The Radical Republic
Conclusion
Chapter 19 Rapid Industrialization and Its Challenges, 1870–1914
The Second Industrial Revolution
New Technology and Scientific Discoveries
The Electric and Chemical Revolutions
Regional Variations
Travel and Communications
Further Scientific Discoveries: “A Boundless Future” and Its Uncertainties
Social Change
Demographic Boom
Improving Standards of Living
Migration and Emigration
The Changing World of Work
Industrialization and the Working-Class Family
Teeming Cities
Social Mobility
Cultural Changes: Education and Religion
Education
The Decline of Religious Practice
The Consumer Explosion
Leisure in the Belle Époque
Sports in Mass Society
Conclusion
Chapter 20 Political and Cultural Responses to a Rapidly Changing World
State Social Reform
The Trade Union Movement
Socialists
Christian Socialism
The Anarchists
Syndicalists
The Quest for Women’s Rights
Cultural Ferment
Realism
Impressionism
Social Theorists’ Analyses of Industrial Society
Nietzsche’s Embrace of the Irrational
Freud and the Study of the Irrational
Avant-Garde Artists and Writers and the Rapid Pace of Modern Life
The Avant-Garde’s Break with Rationalism
Conclusion
Chapter 21 The Age of Europe an Imperialism
From Colonialism to Imperialism
The “New Imperialism” and the Scramble for Africa
British and French Imperial Rivalry
Germany and Italy Join the Race
Standoff in the Sudan: The Fashoda Affair
The British in South Africa and the Boer War
The Europe an Powers in Asia
India, Southeast Asia, and China
Japan and China: Contrasting Experiences
The United States in Asia
Domination of Indigenous Peoples
Social Darwinism
Technological Domination and Indigenous Subversion
Imperial Economies
Colonial Administrations
Assessing the Goals of Europe an Imperialism
The “Civilizing Mission”
The Economic Rationale
Imperialism and Nationalism
Conclusion
PART SIX CATACLYSM
Chapter 22 The Great War
Entangling Alliances
Irreconcilable Hatreds
The Alliance System
Germany and Austria-Hungary against Russia
Germany Encircled: Russia and France Ally
Anglo-German Rivalry
British-French Rapprochement
The First Moroccan Crisis (1905)
The Europe of Two Armed Camps, 1905–1914
The Balkan Tinderbox
Instability in Turkey
The Bosnian Crisis of 1908
The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)
The Balkan Wars
The Final Crisis
Assassination in Sarajevo
The Ultimatum
The Schlieffen Plan
“A Jolly Little War”
The Outbreak of War
Opening Hostilities
The Changing Nature of War
Trench Warfare
War in the Air and on the Seas
The Home Front
The War Rages On
The Eastern Front
The War in the Middle East, Africa, and the Far East
The Western Front
Futility and Stalemate
Soldiers and Civilians
The Final Stages of the War
The United States Enters the War
Russia Withdraws from the War
Offensives and Mutinies
The German Spring
Offensive
The Fourteen Points and Peace
The Impact of the War
Conclusion
Chapter 23 Revolutionary Russia and the Soviet Union
War and Revolution
Russia at War
The February Revolution
The Provisional Government and the Soviet
The Army
The Revolution Spreads Lenin’s Return
The July Days
The Kornilov Affair
The October Revolution
The Bolsheviks Seize Power
The Peace of Brest-Litovsk
Civil War
The Soviet Union
Democratic Centralism
The New Economic Policy
Chapter 24 The Elusive Search for Stability in the 1920s
The End of the War
Revolution in Germany and Hungary
The Treaty of Versailles
Settlements in Eastern Europe
National and Ethnic Challenges
The National Question and the Successor States
Colonial and National Questions
Economic and Social Instability
Social Turmoil
The Left and the Origins of the Welfare State
Political Instability
Germany’s Fragile Weimar Republic
The Established Democracies: Britain and France
Artists and Intellectuals in the Waste Land
Chapter 25 The Europe of Economic Depression and Dictatorship
Economies in Crisis
The Great Depression
Gradual Europe an Economic Revival
The Dynamics of Fascism
Mussolini and Fascism in Italy
Hitler and the Rise of the Nazis in Germany
Right-Wing Authoritarian Movements in Eastern Europe
Fascism in Austria
The Popular
Front in France against the Far Right
Fascism in the
Low Countries and Britain
The Third Reich
The Collapse of the Weimar Republic
The Nazi State
Hitler’s New Reich and the Jews
Hitler’s Foreign Policy
The Führer and the Duce
Remilitarization and Rearmament
The Soviet Union under Stalin
Five-Year Plans
Soviet Culture
“Darkness at Noon”: Stalin’s Purges
The Spanish Civil War
Social and Political Instability
The Struggle between Loyalists and Nationalists
Conclusion
Chapter 26 World War II
The Coming of World War II
The Axis
German Aggression and British and French Appeasement
The Unholy Alliance
The War in Europe Begins
The German Invasion of Poland
The “Phony War”
The War in the Frozen North
The Fall of France
The Battle of Britain
A Global War
Total War
Hitler’s Allies
The German Invasion of Russia
Japan’s Attack on the United States
Hitler’s Europe
The Nazi “New European Order”
The “Final Solution”
Collaboration
Resistance
Against Hitler in Germany
The Tide Turns
Germany on the Defensive
The War in North Africa
Hitler’s Russian Disaster
The Allied Invasion of Italy
The Big Three
The D-Day Invasion of France
Allied Victory
Victory in Europe
The Defeat of Japan
Conclusion
PART SEVEN EUROPE IN THE POST-WAR ERA
Chapter 27 Rebuilding Divided Europe
In the Wake of Devastation
The Potsdam Conference
The United Nations and Cold War Alliances
Confronting Turmoil and Collaborators
Economic Recovery and Prosperity, the Welfare State, and European Economic Cooperation
Economic Cooperation
The Post-War Baby Boom
The Green Revolution
Welfare States
Politics in the West in the Post-War Era
Political Realignments
Divided Germany
Eastern Europe under the Soviet Shadow
The Soviet Union and Its Satellites in the Post-War Era
Changing Contours of Life
Intellectual Currents in the Post-War Era
Advances for Women
Catholicism in Modern Europe
An Urban World
Living Better
Oil and the Global Economy
Conclusion
Chapter 28 The Cold War and the End of European Empires
Cold War
The Korean War (1950–1953)
Stirrings in Eastern Europe
Soviet–U.S. Tensions
Sino-Soviet Rivalry
The Brezhnev Era
Nuclear Weapons and Superpower Tensions
Decolonization
Decolonization in South and Southeast Asia
Britain and the Middle East
The Suez Canal Crisis
French Decolonization
Decolonization in Sub-Saharan Africa
Conclusion
Chapter 29 Transitions to Democracy and the Collapse of Communism
Politics in a Changing Western World
Student Protests Challenge Gaullist France
Shifts in Western Europe an Politics after 1968
The Transition to Democracy in Southern Europe
Religious and Ethnic Conflicts
The Fall of Communism
Resistance to Soviet Domination
The Gorbachev Era
Transition to Parliamentary Government in Poland and Hungary
The Collapse of the Berlin Wall and of East German Communism
The “Velvet Revolution” in Czechoslovakia
Revolutions in Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania
The Collapse of the Soviet Union
The Disintegration of Yugoslavia
Challenges in the Post-Communist World
Conclusion
Chapter 30 Global Challenges: “Fortress Europe,” European Cooperation, and the Uncertainties of a New Age
Immigration to Europe
European Community, European Union
Opposition to Globalization
The Threat of Terrorism
A United States Empire?
European Responses to U.S. Policy
Conclusion
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